How to Tell if a File Exists in Perl

Perl has a set of useful file test operators that can be used to  see whether a file exists or not. Among them is -e, which checks to see if a file exists. This information could be useful to you when you are working on a script that needs access to a specific file, and you want to be sure that the file is there before performing operations. If, for example, your script has a log or a configuration file that it depends upon, check for it first. The example script below throws a descriptive error if a file is not found using this test. #!/usr/bin/perl$filename /path/to/your/file.doc;if (-e $filename) {print File Exists!;} First, you create a string that contains the path to the file that you want to test. Then you wrap the -e (exists) statement in a conditional block so that the print statement (or whatever you put there) is only called if the file exists. You could test for the opposite—that the file does not exist—by using the unless conditional: unless (-e $filename) {print File Doesnt Exist!;} Other File Test Operators You can test for two or more things at a time using the and () or the or (||) operators. Some other Perl file test operators are: -r checks if the file is readable-w checks if the file is writeable-x checks if the file is executable-z checks if the file is empty-f checks if the file is a plain file-d checks if the file is a directory-l checks if the file is a symbolic link Using a file test can help you avoid errors or make you aware of an error that needs to be fixed.

Cell Phone Addiction and Face to Face Conversation

As cell phones have become more and more common in todays society, some people have a significant issue with not being able to disengage from their cell phone. So-called â€Å"smart phones,† which combine functionality of an organizer, browsing the Internet, playing tunes, and taking pictures, only worsen the reliance on one’s cell phone. Cell phones are no longer just a privilege but now have become a necessity. While using such devices for everyday tasks, work, and socializing with friends and family is perfectly normal, not being able to put them down while engaged in a conversation with your significant other or a friend who’s sitting in front of you may denote an increasing problem. In todays society, cell phones have become an addiction and affect our lives in more negative ways than positive ones, causing face to face communication to become less prevalent and loneliness to become the most common ailment of the modern world. With every passing day, technol ogy continues to takeover daily lives. Regardless of ones gender, age, ethnicity, career or financial status, most people own a cell phone. In fact, 91percent of Americans own a cell phone (Archer). 51 percent of which have opted for a smart phone over a standard cell phone and these numbers are rising. The phone, tablet, computer and other high tech devices have become not just an object, but for many people, their best friend. Many of them begin to feel uneasy if they lose their cell phone, even if it is only forShow MoreRelatedHow Cell Phones Affect Social Behavior1282 Words   |  6 PagesEffects of Mobile Phones on Social Skills Kelly Schriever, Matt Seeberger, Mary Sweet, Emily Putnam Elizabethtown College March 17, 2014 Today we live in a world where communication through modern technology is almost required. Everywhere people are texting, emailing, writing blogs, and tweeting. It’s hard to go anywhere without seeing someone using a phone or the internet to connect with others. Most people would feel lost without the use of their phones. Of course theRead MoreThe Social Impact of Cell Phones Essay1465 Words   |  6 Pagesclosest thing to â€Å"cellular technology† was a car phone made by the ATA Company but, Martin and his determined Motorola group yearned higher heights and deeper depths for communication- and thus the birth of the first cell phone was in process. Cooper wanted to exceed the limitations of just simple â€Å"car conversation†. After consistent tedious hours of production, lasting a several month long period of building, critiquing, and finalizing, the first cell phone was born. The first mobile device was the sizeRead MoreImpact Of Cell Phones On Society1509 W ords   |  7 Pagesinternet highlights the latest technology that captivates both young and old. Mobile phones have become an integral part of our society. Primarily, the development of cellphones which combine different sophisticated features has made the device one of the necessities of life. So far, statistics indicate that the number of cell phones in the world supersedes the total population of people. Most people consider cell phones beneficial because of the level of interconnectedness it creates between people aroundRead MoreHow Does Technology Negatively Affect Daily Lives?1304 Words   |  6 Pagesour conversation because it was fragmented. After that, I logged on Facebook, on which I had already spent all my spare time, trying to catch up with my 1000+ â€Å"friends†. Unfortunately, I found most of them I barely know or see. Oh wait, it’s not a dream. It’s happening in reality. With the rapid development of communication technology, new methods of communication, for example cell phones and the Internet, are popularizing in daily lives and are replacing the old way of communication – face-to-faceRead MoreCell Phone Use Hurts Parent-Child Bonding890 Words   |  4 Pages Most people over the age of forty know life without a cell phone, have survived, and thrived. However, today parents are too busy talking or texting on the cell phone and ignoring their children. Distracted parents are to blame for many near drownings and injuries at home, because they were so deep in conversation. Children are deliberately misbehaving to get their parents’ attention. Obviously, as soon as an infant is born bonding begins between baby and parents. Before babies can talk, adultsRead MoreOur Distracted Culture : What Was It?1643 Words   |  7 Pagesdevices, specifically cell phones, that correlates with social media and how it affects relationships and everyday life. He claims, The harsh truth is we Americans have become addicted...is taking a toll on everything from nurturing our authentic relationships to simply paying attention to what matters during our brief lifetimes† (5H). In other words, these distractions, mainly cell phones, withdrawal us fr om life and lead us to fail to communicate with others face to face.. He states examples toRead MoreNegative Effects of Cell Phone of Society1609 Words   |  7 PagesSteve Sheridan Professor Simakowicz 1st Draft Paper 13 April 2010 â€Å"Do Cell Phones Help or Hinder Society?† Times have changed tremendously in the last twenty five years in regards to how the world communicates with each other. The birth of new technology such as cell phones with internet capability, laptop computers, and even the recently released I-Pad has made communication with anyone outside of talking distance immediately accessible. Even though to many people this seems like a movement in theRead MoreInternet Addiction Essay765 Words   |  4 Pagesand social. Nowadays a lot of teenagers have their own phone and laptop which is convenient to keep contact with friends and family, but they use it to play video game most frequently and there are lots of violent video game affect adolescences have bad habits, the main reason is they get addicted to the internet. Huge negative effects appear if teenagers get addicted to the internet, including can not live without a cell phone, internet addiction disorder and there are negative effects of the internetRead MoreTechnology Has Made Our Liv es1684 Words   |  7 Pages According to Pew Research Center (2015), 91 percent of Americans own cell phones.   For people under the age of 44, the number is closer to 97 percent.   64 percent of those phones are smartphones.   Ã‚  With these phones, we have the world at our fingertips.   We can shop on Amazon and Ebay, get live news updates, and get in touch with our â€Å"friends† from all around the globe on Facebook.   Our cell phones have replaced calculators, cameras, and alarm clocks.   If we want to track our calories, thereRead MoreTexting Is Not Safe ! Haha1430 Words   |  6 Pagesis due to both the psychological damage and danger that smartphones place on their children whose brains are not yet fully developed. According to a study conducted on 404 undergraduate students, three-fourths felt that they are dependent on their phones.() The increasing use and popularity of smartphones are an issue that can cause relationship issues, safety concerns, and distractions all which can be detrimental to society. One of the most detrimental consequences of smartphones is the distraction

Engineering Failure Case Study Free Essays

Failure Analysis at DMRC On July 12th 2009 a metro bridge that was under construction collapsed due to negligence by an office in-charge of the Badarpur Metro line. The failure of the bridge killed 6 and injured another 15 when the pier cap sheared from the connecting pillars. The Delhi Metro Rail Corporation took major heat from this incident because the roadway was a major milestone of providing a reliable and easy mean of transportation to the capitol of India. We will write a custom essay sample on Engineering Failure Case Study or any similar topic only for you Order Now The DMRC is considered the most reputed infrastructure organization of India and neglecting roadways to the point where they fail is not an option. During that day the pier cap collapsed causing the collapse of the launching girder, span between p-66 and p-67 piers which had already been erected and pre-stressed, and also segments of the superstructure for the span between p-67 and p-68. The pier cap (p-67) sheared from the connecting point of the pier and pier cap. The top reinforcement of the cantilever beam did not have any development into the pier itself which caused the shear itself. The launching girder has failed due to the failure of the pier cap. This failure also caused the span between piers 67 and 68 causing it to be inclined supported by the ground on one end and the pier cap on the other. With the failure of the pier cap and span between piers the crane used for lifting the launching girder also failed on July 13th 2009. Bending of the crane shows the clear sign of overloading which was caused by not analyzing the amount of stress the crane could handle. The causes of the failure are many and once one portion of the roadway failed it caused a chain reaction to the entire infrastructure collapsing. The pier (p-67) was initially designed as a leg of a portal frame between piers but then was changed to support the pier cap. The same method was used for piers p-66 and p-68. The top reinforcement was poorly engineered; the pier cap had a reinforcement of 36mm diameter and a length of 500mm which was an insufficient bond length for the structure. During the launching operation the launching girder itself developed a crack that was grouted in crack areas and further strengthened by introducing prop or jacketing. During the launching of superstructure 6 segments where lifted and the whole system collapsed when the seventh segment was hooked up for lifting. It was concluded that the failure of the pier cap occurred to the improper jacketing done when a crack had occurred. This was also coupled with inadequate length of support and reinforcement of the cantilever pier cap. The failure of the cranes was the fact that the capacity of 2 cranes where not able to hold the weight of the superstructure which caused the larger 3rd crane to fail. The Delhi Metro Rail Corporation sacked the official in charge of the Badarpur Metro line, Vijay Anand for neglecting his duty. Structural designs should have been proof checked by an experienced structural engineer. Also once failure had been observed the structure should have been abandoned and a new structure should have been built. Make shift reinforcement to save a failed structure was a major neglecting issue and engineering failure. The lack of professionalism that lead to the superstructure failure started with trying to fix the failed pier cap and neglecting the fact that the cranes used to lift the structure where not engineered to hold the amount of weight that needed to be supported. The support reinforcement should have been checked by an experienced engineer that should have easily seen the reinforcement issue between the pier and pier cap. The information for this case study was found from www. engineeringcivil. com/theory/civil. engineering-disaster. com and www. thaindian. com. The entire structural failure was found on these sites including who was a fault and why the structure failed. How to cite Engineering Failure Case Study, Free Case study samples

Physics Absolute Zero Essay Example For Students

Physics Absolute Zero Essay A According to this website, what is the definition of absolute zero? NAS: Absolute Zero, is when the molecules of the object can no longer oscillate/shake, due to the temperature being too cold, that kinetic energy Is too weak to do anything. The time when the escalation is slowed to the point it can no longer be slowed down, that is when it has reached absolute zero, but even then, escalation can never really be put to a stop. B Why is the Kelvin scale especially helpful when studying absolute ere? NAS: Because it is the same as the others, but it shifts downwards. Water boils at 373 K and freezes as 273 K, and is absolute zero at exactly O. C What is the value of absolute zero on the Kelvin scale? The Celsius scale, and the Fahrenheit scale? NAS: On the Kelvin scale, it is O. Celsius scale is -CHIC. And finally Fahrenheit is -OFF. 2 Visit the following URL: Physician. Com Absolute Zero or Ask a Scientist: Absolute Zero A According to this website, what type of experiments led to the idea of absolute zero? NAS: It was when people were investing the behavior of gas pressure vs.. Temperature, did they find out how the lowest temperature it could get to on a graph was -273 degrees centigrade. B Describe scientists attempts to reach absolute zero. NAS: They would increase the temperature of a gas they are using, and would measure the pressure emitted from it. 3 Visit the following URL: New State of Matter Seen Near Absolute Zero . What is a Bose-Einstein condensate? NAS: It is the experiment the JILL did, and created a far more colder temperature than the other ones which were recorded. They created a new matter which Albert Einstein and Indian Physicist predicted years ago. 4 According to the information you have obtained, you know that absolute zero is about -273 degrees Celsius. You will now use your graph to predict this value based on the laboratory data presented in this activity. A Think back to the Galileo Gardens activity Graphing Tips. You will be using the same prediction techniques to find the value of absolute zero. Go back to your graph from step 5 above. Be sure that the graph window is active. From the menu bar at the top of the screen, select Analyze. Choose Automatic Curve Fit. Select the proper function based on the arrangement of the data points. B Now select Interpolate from the Analysis menu. You can view this in the graphic on the right. Move your cursor along the line of the graph until the y axis value is zero. The corresponding x value is the predicted value of absolute zero. What is the predicted value of absolute zero shown on your graph? NAS: I got -271. 35 degrees centigrade. Physics Absolute Zero By Peacetime

Bio of Phoenix Arizona Essay

Bio of Phoenix Arizona Essay Bio of Phoenix Arizona Essay My name is Yameka Monique Cassey Barnes. I was born and raised in Monroe, La., later lived in Bastrop, Louisiana for 10 years; now I moved back to my hometown. I am married but separated. I have two girls, one is 15 and the oldest is 18. I am attending University of Phoenix to achieve my career in Criminal Justice. This is my first day at University of Phoenix. Experience C.N.A. since 2000; passionate about helping and has a good interpersonal skills and always welcome a challenge. Excellent Organizational Skills, Computer Proficiency, Data Entry, Word Perfect, Microsoft Word, Data Base, Developing and maintaining Excel and Spread Sheets, Keyboarding at 47 words per minute, Managing and Storing Records, Telephone Etiquette, 10-key Calculator, Filing, Office Management and Procedures, and Word Processing. Baby-sitting kids from 12 and under for 3 years (1998-2001), Taught at a Vocational Bible Study, Secretary on the Student Government Association at Louisiana Technical College in Bastrop (2007-2008). My career goal is to get my bachelor’s degree in Criminal Justice. After achieving my goal I want to become a detective or a probation officer. I want to start from dispatcher then a police officer before going on to the detective work. I think in my state that what I would have to do start from bottom line to the top. I will love this job because this has been my dream every since I was in my younger age. I’m always trying to solve something or investigating something and sometimes get to the bottom of it. Due to our fallen economy I want a job where I would not have to

Long Poem Essays - Szd Speech, Free Essays, Term Papers

Long Poem Essays - Szd Speech, Free Essays, Term Papers Long Poem Hi I think I say I cry For we cant see Or realize Our fate Not shown yet casted in slate The grown Dont even hesitate to ignore and wait to late for They see it as a chore too broad a subject to explore too set our ways too closed our doors to many days have come and gone not correcting what is wrong yet still life goes on Why do we learn to share as youths The truth we still dont see for you and me forgot its trapped inside our thoughts not coming out not free to be about nothing i can say aloud but proud i will write no worrys of a fight not scared of the bite Greed to want not to need to bite the hand that feeds i want more demand dont pleed cut down the tree dont plant the seed how long until we see me i cant be the only one there are tons why dont they talk and walk the walk our length of time is unknown before the bomb will be blown and cast the shadow on every home then no issues to discuss no talk no fuss no trucks no bus no passion no lust no shine just rust just a faint gust of past how the humans did not last Neverending is time like a crime that plagues or mind tick tock we dont stop and think to be and feel the sea and the grass between our toes the fragrence to our nose why when its time to die we try and absorb like weve never been here before time keeps us sore deep into the core more and more it will sink for we will never link the fact that time equals stress the crest of our attitudes all longitudes and latitudes a build up of filled up emotion its time to meet the quotient Still we sit and wait to teach to late we cant convense ourselves just keep stacking on the shelves maybe even we try but it is that you have to pry for these or our lives but ignorence is bliss or is it this we will accept as we have left cancer to grow the hair to fro the boat to row the seas to flow until they flood upon our lands passed our sands into our hands a burrdon is placed tiss we were graced but thats erased shot into space a place we dont know scared we are of this the great obiss whats waiting for us to miss slowly we are hesitating this to me feels degrating why sit react procrastation killed the cat or something like that we dream of what we wish was fact like a shell not yet cracked why are we here comes a tear to my eye as if we are just a lie a small small peice of pie not to tall not to wide but still we are stuck inside the crust is flustered with the dust from our minds and time and greed and what we think we do not see and the way we only focus on whats presented to our imagination we cant wait too long lets make the wrong become the wrongs turn the wisper into a song for soon we will be gone until then life goes on... Bibliography none

Muslim women today in Islam Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Muslim women today in Islam - Research Paper Example Muslim women in the modern age have a unique image which is sometimes full of misconceptions. We see them as the antithesis of modernity due to their cultural practices. Contrary to popular belief, the discrimination of women in many Muslim societies has nothing to do with them being Muslims. The idea that their religion encourages the poor status of these women is in reality an ignorance of their real place in Islam. The underlying philosophy of Islam with respect to women should therefore be delineated from the well-entrenched customs that have no attachment whatsoever from the Quranic principles. The treatment of women in patriarchal Muslim societies is not the true reflection of women in Islam. It is a mistake to misjudge some cultural practices as evidence of their status. These oppressions and injustices under the pretext of religion is nowhere near the ideal treatment they deserve. Women of today have rights in Islam, which although not thoroughly practiced across the globe, reveal their worth. While it is true that women is equally valuable as men, their difference in roles and functions have led others to believe that they differ in status. A woman is expected to obey her father and then eventually her husband, as this is regarded to be the Will of Allah (Pratt, 2005). A certain Quranic verse has led some to believe women’s inferiority: â€Å"Men are qawwamÃ… «n over women bima God faddala ba’d of them over others, and bima they spend of their own money†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (as cited in Mejia, 2007, p.10). This has been interpreted to mean that men as providers are physically and intellectually above women, thus justifying their authority. There is however evidence to the fact that the hierarchy of gender is not Islamic but was a cultural practice from elsewhere that was embraced my Muslims. Although a man and a woman are physically different, they are nonetheless

Parents Attitudes Toward Learning Through Play in the Foundation Stage Essay

Parents Attitudes Toward Learning Through Play in the Foundation Stage - Essay Example The researcher is an advocate of children and their best interests which is why she decided to pursue a topic that is close to her heart. In her experience with children, she has discovered how play can be an effective tool in learning new concepts. Knowing that a child’s family is a great influence on their learning and development, the researcher also found it interesting to explore how parents regard play and if they view play similarly to how the children’s teachers in the foundation stage do. Developments in education point to the benefits of collaboration between the home environment and the school in the facilitation of children’s growth, learning and development. Wood argues that the Government endorses literacy and numeracy strategies that make use of play especially in the early years and the fact that parents are expected to take part in their children’s learning may press parents to seriously consider the advantages and disadvantages of play. H owever, Wiltshire claims that parents question what the Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) has to offer their children as it is heavily play based. Research reveals that parents recognise the value of play but are sometimes confused about its function in children’s learning. If the parents’ view is that play is merely for entertainment and social purposes, then it is doubtful that parents will become fully involved as partners in their children’s education.   The specific objectives of this research are as follows: 1. To research related literature in order to define play 2. To identify the types of play used in the foundation stage 3. To establish why play is important for children’s development. 4. To use primary research to explore parents’ beliefs and attitudes regarding play as a way of learning in the foundation stage. 5. To identify whether support children’s development is at the foundation stage by providing play activities at home 1.4 Rationale of the Study This research aims to explore how parents truly regard play and if they do believe that it is beneficial for supporting their children’s development in the foundation stage. This information would be helpful for practitioners so that they know how to engage parents’ cooperation and support in schools. It is believed that parents are important collaborators in their children’s learning since they can provide the resources and exper iences to help them learn at home and extend the learning that takes place in school. In partnership with teachers, parents can help enhance the curriculum in ways that engage children’s interest, so it becomes meaningful and fun for them. Play is one way that makes this possible. Parents are seen as partners in their children’s education, so it is worthwhile to study how they view their role as parents of young children who constantly engage in play as a form of enjoyment. According to Nutbrown (1999), first introductions of play for most children are in a ‘home-based pedagogy of play’.  

Organizational strategy Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Organizational strategy - Case Study Example This paper will discuss how the economic recession has affected the strategic management of the organization, and how it has survived the economic pressures that could otherwise downturn the business (Bateson 2005, p. 98). Coca-cola Company is one of the most successful companies that have laid down some fundamental strategies in order to promote its growth and sustainability. It is the leading manufacturer, marketer and distributor of non-alcoholic beverage in the world. The company believes that consumers are the life of their business. It operates in more than two hundred countries, including Britain with four hundred brands. These brands include water, juice drinks, coffees, teas, sports drinks, energy drinks, diet beverage and many others. They connect to future consumer by providing high quality products. Their employees are skilled and the materials they use are of high quality (www.cocacola.com). Economic recession has had impact on the human resource management strategy of the Company's organization. It has led to higher unemployment, inflation, as well as the cost of living expenses. On the consumer side, economic recession has led to lower disposable income and lower purchasing power. The weakened economy has negatively affected the bottling companies; hence threaten the stability of the company due to the dependent relationship. Moreover, it has led to increased activity at the lower ends of Coca Cola product price in Britain (Bateson 2005, p. 102). The rate of interests has raised the depressing business, hence causing lower spending levels and redundancies. The 2008 economic analysis for Coca Cola Company shows that the economy was strong and nearly every part of it was growing and doing well. The economic crisis which was suggested by several important indicators of economic downturn in Britain include high oil prices, which led to high food prices, as well as using ethanol and biodiesel as an alternative to petroleum (www.cocacola.com). The company has tried to fight the economic pressures; it has significant opportunities that develop and encourage more sustainable practices to benefit their customers, suppliers and consumers throughout the supply chain. The company's system is among the world's leading purchasers of sugar, coffee and citrus; for this reason, its organizational strategy is not affected by the economic recession because agriculture has a large environmental and social footprint in the world (Bateson 2005, p. 112). As the population increases, the sector of agriculture will need to produce more food, both stressing supply, hence increasing the footprint. Agriculture products are ingredients in many of their beverages, thus the sustainability of the company depends on the agriculture supply chain. For this reason, their bottling partners and the procurement teams are working together to incorporate sustainability criteria into the long term purchasing plans. Coca-Cola Company has worked hard to generate high pricing growth and acquire operating expenses and effectiveness in their strategic plans. This has enabled them stabilize their business for proper managing of their targets. The company has continued to plan for useful marketing strategies and approaches that would enable overcome consumer and market trends that impact the business,

Overview of the Malthus-Ricardo Debate

Overview of the Malthus-Ricardo Debate The world known controversy between the Malthus and Ricardo has long been considered as a source of history for economic thought. But no one try to investigate this as a polemical dialogical exchange (Glyn, 2006). The present study is undertaken to fill this gap within the framework of a more ambitious project that places controversies at the center of an account of the history of ideas, in science and elsewhere. According to my views the dialogical co-text is essential for comparing and contrasting the Malthus and Ricardo views about different economic perspectives. The initial step towards analyzing these controversies is the analysis of their backgrounds. Because backgrounds are essential part to investigate the real story of Ricardo Malthus debate. Then we shall move towards the comparison of their views towards different economic perspectives (Cremaschi Dascal, 1998). Malthus was born in 1766, in the core of troubled but optimistic period. He was the younger son of his father, Daniel Malthus. His father was a gentleman from good family background. Daniel Malthus has some sort of intellectual statutory into his personality. Malthus was born into an English family that belongs to the gentry of the country. Malthus was having the disadvantage of stammering by birth. Due to this defect he has to face huge difficulties in selecting his profession. This natural disability was the major constraint in the Malthus career choice (Cremaschi Dascal, 1998). As a student Malthus was a boy with excellent academic career. He was pride for his teachers. He performed distinctions, got scholarships and selected as fellow of Trinity College. Malthus lived a relatively placid life. During his stay in the Trinity college, he began to develop the perfectibility and of philosophic anarchism in him. He also learned about the rationality and how men and women could learn to live rationally through their whole life and can accomplish their lives (Cremaschi Dascal, 1998). The first edition of his essay in 1798 made him famous in the age of 32. The essay got hatred from some sections of community due to its deriding the hopes for progress and arguing about the futility of charity to children. The below passage can clearly portrays the Malthus View of human progress, â€Å"The vices of mankind are active and able ministers of depopulation. They are the precursors of the army of destruction; and often finish the dreadful work themselves. But should they fail in this war of extermination, sickly seasons, epidemics, pestilence, and plague advance in terrific array, and sweep off their thousands and ten thousands. Should success be still incomplete, gigantic inevitable famine stalks in the rear, and with one mighty blow, levels the population with the food of the world† In these excerpts Malthus made it clear that overpopulation can be disastrous for the mankind. His argument was totally against the Godwin’s faith in the ability to rule the rationality as supplant the principle of overpopulation (Glyn,2006). David Ricardo was born six years after Malthus and to a very different station in life. Ricardo’s father was a broker who had been migrated from Amsterdam to London just few years before the birth of Ricardo. His father joined the Jewish community and Ricardo was sent to Jewish school in Amsterdam to get proper education when he became old enough. HE returned to London in age of fourteen and start taking interest in his father’s business. Due to controversy between Ricardo and his parents, he had to leave the house. After quitting house, Ricardo opt the trade profession, the only professions he knows. He quickly proved himself to be the Boy Wonder of Thread needle Street. Till the age of thirty he collected enough wealth and get bored from this accumulation of wealth. So he started turning his mind towards other things like economics (Rashid,1981). Economics was the major thing which he adopted after leaving the wealth accumulation. In 1799 he read the Wealth of nations and this inspired him too much to continuously read and think about the economics. Ricardo took participate to solve he inflation crisis in the parliament. This and some of the other major events e.g. depreciation of led to the first meeting between David Ricardo and Malthus. And from the very first meeting they became good friends. They were good friends but they could never long out for each other’s minds. Below are the major controversies of their thought and views on some major theories and perspectives. The Corn Laws Controversy The extraordinary collaboration of their thoughts emerged after few years of their initial encounter. The occasions were the controversy over the Corn Laws. Corn Laws were about the variable tariffs and export subsidies which were levied to protect and promote the English agriculture. In the times of Napoleonic Wars, farm prices were specifically high due to the coincidence of wartime demand. After war ended, the economic destabilization caused due to some bumper crops. This destabilization lowered the wheat prices by 50% in 1812-1815. Tariff protection was necessary tool to protect the agriculture demand. This was the major debate of that time. Malthus and Ricardo first time entered into the public debate from opposite sides over this issue. The debate is the basis for the formulation of rent theory of Malthus and Ricardian elaboration of rent theory of Malthus. The argument served as kernel for the establishment of the political economy and taxation. Ricardo was of the view that with the growth of country’s population, capital or wealth would be accumulated and this can cause the farming prices to fall. As the farmers have to resort to least productive land. This would also cause to fall down the general profit rates for agriculture in the economy. Malthus completely disagrees with this conclusion of Ricardo. He published his observation on the Corn Laws in the form of pamphlet. This pamphlet was the review of advantages as well as disadvantages of imposing tariff on imported agricultural commodities. Malthus was of the view that retaining the high tariffs on corn is necessary for its protection. Malthus argued that protection of Corn Laws is vital for protecting the English Agriculture as ways improving the vitality of English ways and institutions. Ricardo Continuously argued about the adverse effects of the population growth and capital accumulation due to protection of rents which was supported by Malthus. Ricardo argued against the Malthus concept of rent vehemently that Future success of the English economy depends upon the progress of industries which is being stifled through Corn laws. Ricardo argument about Corn Laws can be concluded as â€Å"If, then, the prosperity of the commercial classes will most certainly lead to accumulation of capital, and the encouragement of productive industry; these can by no means be so surely obtained as by a fall in the price of corn.† Although this debate did not lead them towards making any final theory about the policy issues, but it provided the strong basis for theory of national income. There were some similarities in their arguments too. They both relied upon the population theory while explaining level of real wages. Malthus theory of rent was focal point of Ricardo and Malthus arguments. They both recognized that rate of profit in agriculture can be determined through the productivity of the marginal land which is cultivated. Thus they include the marginal productivity into economic thoughts although in limited manner. They also agreed that rate of profit had to be the same in all industries where competition prevailed. Thus all the ingredients of Ricardian distribution and growth theory were in place and agreed upon. The Gluts Controversy The next controversial debate between Ricardo and Malthus was one the â€Å"gluts†. After the Waterloo English economy slumped into severe postwar depression called as glut. They were thinking about the possible solution to mitigate this challenge. Ricardo perceived that condition of general overproduction is impossible without the transiently. To balanced the oversupply of one commodity shortage of other commodity in necessary. Malthus argued about hat point that total demand can be smaller than the total output. But working population and other resources could produce if fully employed. The working population is able to buy subsistence only. If the well-off classes were too abstemious, the prices of luxuries could fall to the point where there was no profit in producing them, and glut would ensue. In the extreme, Malthus pointed out, if everyone lived on a subsistence scale there would have to be a vast oversupply of commodities since each worker could produce much more than bare subsistence for himself and his family. This debate was revived hundred years after the death of both the Malthus and Ricardo. Malthus devoted the final chapter of his book to the issue of glut and the need for a class of unproductive consumers who would provide the demand that would keep the rest of the economy employed profitably. Malthus pointed out those English landed gentry was the exception ally that is well equipped to fulfill that function. Ricardo holds the argument that â€Å" I can see no soundness in the reasons you give for the usefulness of demand on the part of unproductive consumers. How their consuming, without reproducing, can be beneficial to a country, in any possible state of it, I confess I cannot discover.(Glyn, 2006) The Value Controversy All the while that Malthus and Ricardo were arguing about the Corn Laws and the nature of gluts, they were conducting a third interminable dispute. This one concerned the definition, measurement, and cause of value. From our perspective, the concern over value, which extended from Adam Smith to Stanley Jevons at least, was a great waste of words and time. But Malthus, Ricardo, and their contemporaries took it very seriously, and with some reason (Rashid, 1981). They had enough experience with inflations, crop failures and bumper crops, and other economic disturbances to recognize that money prices fluctuated too erratically to indicate long-run relation-ships or to reveal underlying trends. They believed that each commodity had a property that, following Adam Smith, they called its natural value, which explained the ratio of its money price to the prices of other commodities (Glyn, 2006). Both Ricardo and Malthus agreed upon this fact but when they define the natural value they were devising to measure it in practice. In devising the endless practice, they too became engaged in the debate. The debate was about the practical measurement of values of the commodities. In this perspective, Ricardo argued that there is no tool for measuring the value of commodities. Instead the natural values of the commodities can be expressed in terms of approximation by comparing with the precious metals (O’Brian, 1981). In this scenario, Malthus advocated that values of the commodities can be measured by using the cost of labor (wages). This can be done of the grounds that there should be equal quantity of labor for measuring the natural as well as absolute value (Glyn, 2006). Malthus-Ricardo debate on under consumption Malthuss under consumption theory of business recession be summarized as follows; ‘If producers have not anticipated a fall in consumption demand, they will not be able to sell their products at a price that yields a normal rate of return. Discouraged by their losses, these producers will scale down their production levels and engage in less investment than they would otherwise. As a result, an under consumptions business recession ensues: Ricardo took the Malthus remarks as most important part for his principals. He responded the under consumption theory in two different ways (O’Brian, 1981). These are; Statement of effects: The first response was in the form that he did not understand the Malthus theory. The reason for this was that Ricardo was anticipating a model type system which he could not find the under consumption theory. Direct criticism: The other response was in the form of direct denigration on the Malthus theory. Ricardo found it difficult to hold completely the Malthus theory. Ricardo separated the conclusions for the theory and criticizes them. He criticizes the defects in the reasoning (O’Brian, 1981). One conclusion not satisfying the Ricardo was general access of supply termed as glut. Ricardo argued that any excess supply can be balanced by demands. Malthus argued about hat point that total demand can be smaller than the total output. But working population and other resources could produce if fully employed. The working population is able to buy subsistence only. If the well-off classes were too abstemious, the prices of luxuries could fall to the point where there was no profit in producing them, and glut would ensue. In the extreme, Malthus pointed out, if everyone lived on a subsistence scale there would have to be a vast oversupply of commodities since each worker could produce much more than bare subsistence for himself and his family. This debate was revived hundred years after the death of both the Malthus and Ricardo. It can be concluded that Malthus and Ricardo were good friends who could never agree with each other on economic matters. Their first controversy was about the Corn Laws. Corn Laws were about the variable tariffs and export subsidies which were levied to protect and promote the English agriculture. In the times of Napoleonic Wars, farm prices were specifically high due to the coincidence of wartime demand. Malthus completely disagrees with this conclusion of Ricardo. He published his observation on the Corn Laws in the form of pamphlet. This pamphlet was the review of advantages as well as disadvantages of imposing tariff on imported agricultural commodities. Malthus was of the view that retaining the high tariffs on corn is necessary for its protection. Malthus argued that protection of Corn Laws is vital for protecting the English Agriculture as ways improving the vitality of English ways and institutions (O’Brian, 1981). Ricardo Continuously argued about the adverse effects of the population growth and capital accumulation due to protection of rents which was supported by Malthus. Ricardo argued against the Malthus concept of rent vehemently that Future success of the English economy depends upon the progress of industries which is being stifled through Corn Laws. The other major controversy was on the glut issue. There were good reasons why they could never agree. One of the reasons for their continuous conflict was that they were born and bred in two different cultures and traditions. The adopted the economics after getting through different occupations and preconceptions. These conceptions shaped their views and thinking about Corn Laws and glut controversies (Glyn, 2006). In the extreme, Malthus pointed out, if everyone lived on a subsistence scale there would have to be a vast oversupply of commodities since each worker could produce much more than bare subsistence for himself and his family. This debate was revived hundred years after the death of both the Malthus and Ricardo. Malthus devoted the final chapter of his book to the issue of glut and the need for a class of unproductive consumers who would provide the demand that would keep the rest of the economy employed profitably Although they brought up in two different cultures and modes, Ricardo was quick, brilliant and concise while Malthus was moderate and motivated. Although Ricardo as the archetypical theorist while Malthus was the practical economists. Ricardo favors the clean and simple cases while Malthus developed its thoughts from the rich and complex economic life. This is not the strange that they could not agree each other but simple thing is that they could not stand each other. Their differences arise in their mind sets, collaborations, cultures and perceptions. This can be reflected through their collaborations and friendships. Both Ricardo and Malthus agreed upon this fact but when they define the natural value they were devising to measure it in practice. In devising the endless practice, they too became engaged in the debate. The debate was about the practical measurement of values of the commodities.Their struggles to convey to each other their views of the forces that drove their economy are an inspiring case study in both the difficulty and the possibility of human communication. They were best friends who could not satisfy each other through their arguments and judgments. And they could never minimize their differences. Their differences can be more visibly seen from their writings, speeches and manuscripts and analysis. There are some similarities in their analysis too but mainly there was differences and opposite arguments about certain economic t heories. But their differences and opposite arguments gave the most valuable analysis of modern economic theories. The long debate help to view the economic theories from every perspectives. References Cremaschi, S., Dascal, M. (1998). Persuasion and argument in the Malthus-Ricardo correspondence.Research in the History of Economic Thought and Methodology, 1-64. Cremaschi, S., Dascal, M. (1998). Malthus and Ricardo: Two styles for economic theory.Science in Context,11(02), 229-254. Dascal, M., Cremaschi, S. (1999). The Malthus-Ricardo correspondence: Sequential structure, argumentative patterns, and rationality.Journal of pragmatics,31(9), 1129-1172. Glyn, A. (2006). The corn model, gluts and surplus value.Cambridge Journal of Economics,30(2), 307-312. OBrien, D. P. (1981). Ricardian economics and the economics of David Ricardo.Oxford Economic Papers, 352-386. Richerson, P. J., Boyd, R. (1998). Homage to Malthus, Ricardo, and Boserup Toward a General Theory of Population, Economic Growth, Environmental Deterioration, Wealth, and Poverty.Human Ecology Review,4, 85-90. Rashid, S. (1981). Malthus Principles and British economic thought, 1820–1835.History of Political Economy,13(1), 55-79.

AFRICA Essay -- essays research papers

HOW HAS THE SPREAD OF AIDS AFFECTED AFRICAN SOCIETY 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Baer, Hans., et al. â€Å"Medical Anthropology and the World System.† A Critical Perspective Ch. 8: p159-269. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Stine, Gerald J. â€Å"Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome†¦ The facts written are by Gerald J. Stine in â€Å"Acquired Immune Deficiency syndrome† . Worldwide, about 9,000 persons a day become HIV-infected. The majority of all HIV infections worldwide occur in people ages 15-24. Over 1 million people die of AIDS each year. The number of HIV-infections worldwide has tripled since 1990! It is estimated that there will be a 20% drop in population in East Africa by the year 2001 because of AIDS (Stine, 360). â€Å"AIDS is the leading cause of deaths among adult men and the second leading cause of deaths among adult women in Africa† (Bethel, 13).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"It is extremely difficult to judge the exact extent of AIDS in Africa, either geographically or in the population† so rather than just focusing on Western Africa , we should look at the bigger picture (Bethel, 138). Also, â€Å"we can assert that AIDS cases do not occur on the African continent in a uniform fashion but rather form an â€Å"AIDS Belt† in central, southern, and eastern Africa† (Bethel, 138). First, Let me tell you that Third World Nations makeup three fourths of the Earth’s population, and combining that fact with the fact that these worlds are not as advanced and have an lesser knowledge of prevention, and AIDS , it is not very surprising that these countries populations are impacted by death. â€Å"Africa, with about 12% of the world’s population, is now reporting around 25% of the world’s AIDS cases. It is estimated to have over 65% of the total number of HIV-infected adults and 90% of the world’s HIV-infected children† (Stine, 364). An incredible and unbelievable fact that shows the impact of the disease in Africa is that 6,000 Africans are HIV-infected each day which is 250 persons per hour or four per minute. Between 20% and 30% of sexually active adults between the ages of 20 and 40 are believed to be infected with HIV in some urban places of sub-Sahara Africa, where the disease is felt the hardest. In rural areas, where the most of the people live, seriousness is much lower but is still rising. Stine also mentions that available evidence shows that it is unlikely that the spre... ...woman may choose to breastfeed her baby regardless to protect the baby against many more other infections. Also, it is allowed by most cultures, and it’s free. And third, if artificial feeding is chosen, the mother must take chances on the water-supply that can give her child other deadly diseases. Fortunately though, developing countries are giving information about infant feeding to HIV-infected woman who are pregnant. In developing countries rather than Western society, their mentality is much more different. Western societies can prevent illness and death because of knowledge that Africans don’t have. In developing countries, they worry more about living for today, which means that they face death from AIDS in five years from prostitution or death from starvation tomorrow from lack of money. In a lot of cases, if the wife is worried and wants to use condoms, she is threatened with the husband leaving her for another woman. In that case, the wife would eventually have to go to the streets for money and that means beginning prostitution. This never-ending cycle of poverty and ignorance can only be broken by education, which still may not be enough. God help them!

Environmental issues and policies in Madagascar Essay

With the world’s population growing constantly and with human needs and desires growing pretty fast, we feel like every year there is less and less room for us to live on and it takes more and more effort for us to calmly and amicably share room and resources with our neighbors. In fact, it is too early to speak about global overpopulation, since there are still vast expanses of yet uninhabited land, to say nothing of the ability of humans, with the help of innovative technological facilities, to promptly acclimatize under extreme conditions. However, in many countries (particularly in third-world countries) some emigrational tendencies that are mostly dictated by economic and social factors, are creating quite a plausible picture of our future world, revealing the most likely and formidable phenomena we may face in future. Some large cities are experiencing serious problems related to rapidly increasing inflow of countrymen who, for various reasons, are forced to leave countryside and look for a better life in cities. Over the past few decades, most economies have been developing in such a way as to provide propitious conditions for rapid urbanization. Industrial development plus numerous revolutionary technological breakthroughs that took place in the twentieth century have resulted in the appearance of large factories. The growing demand for paid workforce has attracted country dwellers, leading to massed withdrawal of human resources from rural areas. In terms of personal affluence, the concentration of social and economic activity in the city has made urban environment more attractive and promising. Although governments of some countries have realized the danger of such economic tilts, most rural lands are still experiencing severe shortage of financial support resulting in persistent skepticism of many people about life in the countryside. It is to say, that it takes a lot of innovative thinking and political will on the part of a government to balance out the local economy, as well as the realization of the fact that harsh mandatory or administrative measures imposed on people to make them stay in rural areas alone will not suffice. It will be not before we manage to create economically healthy and prosperous environment in the village that we shall be able to speak about things in the countryside taking a turn for the better. We have considered the negative of withdrawal of human, financial, industrial and technological resources from the village from the standpoint of rural life. This long-lasting tendency seems to be making it hot for cities too. In many cities, especially in world capitals, unending inflow of immigrants seeking wealthy and prospect, has contributed to rapid and uncontrolled population growth, resulting in tough and fierce competition in the sphere of management and acute contradictions between management and hired staff, entailing collisions of interests, progressive social stratification and environmental deterioration. All this has led to a number of doubtful achievements and hazards, which appear to be making city life far less comfortable than it used to be a short while ago. Today, Mexico city is the world’s largest capital, counting about 22 million people. Mexico is a large industrial city, and it appears to be sharing the fate of most industrial centers of the world, barely coping with the influx of countrymen. The acceptance by the Mexican government of certain trading rules in line with international agreements, a paramount condition of the country’s participation in the WTO, has impacted rural economy, causing a dramatic economic collapse in the agricultural sector, resulting from the imbalance between local prices and those imposed by WTO regulations. This has triggered a new spate of internal migration from the countryside to the city. Unfortunately, problems that the city of Mexico has accumulated by now are not limited to overpopulation. It is not the overpopulation itself that poses most serious difficulties, but also ineffectual measures taken by the city government. To say the least, with the inflow so intensive and so evident, the city’s townplanning committee does not seem to be fully taking into account the migration problem, or they simply fail to keep pace with the time. The city infrastructure fails to keep up with the population increase, so people arriving in Mexico take up residence in shabby makeshift homes on the city’s outskirts or in slum districts. These districts lack water and gas supply, sewage, electricity, services, etc. , and there are no advanced waste disposal systems whatsoever. This has resulted in absolutely unfavorable environmental and epidemiologic conditions. Most of garbage and human wastes remain on or close to the surface of the earth, and large parts of it are carried by winds for miles away and into the city. Unsanctioned dumping may spoil water and cause massed poisonings or outbreaks of infection. This in turn directly affects the quality of the food, increasing the risk of its contamination with harmful substances and bacteria. There is another menacing phenomenon resulting from uncontrolled population growth and topped off by the city’s geographic position. Permanent release of carbodyoxide by factories, coupled with the release of automobile waste gases is putting the city on the brink of suffocation. Statistically, automobile emissions make up about 60% of all emissions, and, considering the increasing vehicle ownership, there seems to be no way to reduce automobile emissions. The realization that internal combustion is the greatest contributor to the accumulation of emission gases in the atmosphere has prompted automobile designers to equip vehicles with catalytic converters, but today there are too few such cars to make the effect palpable. The city is placed on a plateau fenced off with high mountain ranges. The cold air arriving from behind the mountains forms a cap over the whole valley preventing the warm and stuffed city air from getting away. This lack of natural convection contributes to the accumulation of harmful emissions in the area and may turn the whole place into a gigantic gas van. The continuing economic growth, extensive factory development and ever-growing population in Mexico City are aggravating the pollution problem. The accumulation of heavy metals in the air can undermine peoples’ health and result in serious progressive hereditary diseases, increasing the occurrence of cancer, chronic poisoning, high infant mortality, cardiovascular diseases, allergic reactions, innate orthopedic malformations, poor cognition and many other physical and mental abnormalities. Progressive intake of harmful substances directly affects the nation’s genetic makeup, and it is hardly possible now to precisely foresee all consequences of these destructive influences. Active use of depths of the earth, resulting from ever-bulging demand for minerals and oil has triggered rapid and unpredictable underground processes, resulting in unstable aquifers and causing much water to go deeper into the ground, making it less reachable. As long as the city is situated in a seismologically unstable region with an active volcano in its direct proximity, further deterioration of the bed may result in disastrous earthquakes, which, in turn, are likely to wake up the volcano and plunge the whole area into an apocalyptic calamity. Apart from the destruction of the bedrock, destruction of aquifers is fraught with the disappearance of water in some places and appearance of excessive amounts of it in others. This may cause lack of water supply and actual drying out of some areas and lead to unexpected floods elsewhere. The formation of empty spaces in the bed has caused some areas to sink significantly over the past few decades, which increases the possibility of flooding. At the same time, the emptying of the aquifers due to extraneous consumption of water by the growing city has led to a dramatic reduction of natural water resources, threatening to leave the whole city without water in the foreseeable future. According to last estimates, every second the city of Mexico takes 7,250 gallons of water, which amounts to an Olympic-size swimming pool per minute. With the consumption of water so intensive, there is a grave possibility that the amount of water remaining in the aquifers will be insufficient. Needless to say, this is much more serious a threat that inability to afford a car or a TV. In some areas, shortage of water is already tangible, and it has resulted in social upheavals. Changes in bedrock structure and the progressive subsidence of the ground can also result in the destruction of sewer and drainage systems, increasing the risk of contaminating fresh water and thus threatening to impair its quality. As we can see, all the aforementioned threats arise from one major phenomenon – overpopulation. Needless to say, increasingly intensive use of water and resources is attributable to population growth and human thirst for relative prosperity and every individual’s desire to occupy his or her niche in the booming economy. However, this brief outline of most significant problems and dilemmas shows that if we continue to use natural resources in the current fashion, the place we live in will soon become absolutely unlivable. In this respect, the city of Mexico can be presented as a small replica of our entire planet, which, with the same tendencies and phenomena persisting, will soon be confronted with similar problems. There is less and less room for industrial and vehicle emission gases and, like it is with the aquifers under Mexico city, the increasing encroachment upon minerals and oil resources is affecting the earth’s bedrock, creating pre-conditions for unpredictable and destructive earthquakes and massive destruction. With the situation so serious and menacing tendencies so evident, many governmental authorities of Mexico City, as well as state authorities express their concern about the country’s future and come up with lots of ideas, which are likely to prove helpful and effective in overcoming these negative tendencies. Whichever idea is the best, just one thing is evident today, and this is the necessity to create positive incentives and favorable conditions for people to live and work in the countryside in order to stem the growth of city population. As air quality issue appears to be the most evident one, the city government has developed a number of solutions aimed at reduction of industrial and vehicle releases into the atmosphere. By incorporating advanced technological systems and usage of higher quality fuel, it is possible to significantly improve air quality. Recently, a state-of-the-art air quality monitoring system has been implemented, so government officials and specialists have obtained control over air quality. Now every vehicle is required to feature advanced converting devices that are capable to cut down the release of toxic substances. In November 1989, the city Government introduced the so called No Driving Day (NDD), when car owners are supposed not to use their vehicles on certain days. The results of this innovation were a considerable reduction of traffic congestion and gasoline use. The use of refined types of fuel and the installation of waste gas purification and vapor recovery equipment are innovative measures regulated by the Clear Air Act Amendments of 1990. Hypothetically, these measures can be instrumental in reducing the amount of vehicle-related chemicals in the air and thus improve air quality. However, these ideas, though effective theoretically, have proven less feasible in reality. As a rule, advanced technological solutions are something than few people can afford, and most people find it less expensive to bribe authorized inspection employees and use old vehicles than purchasing new automobiles or applying expensive technologies. Not infrequently, the cost of implementing new equipment exceeds the size of fines by far, so people prefer to pay fines rather than spend money on equipment. For this reason, the results of the latest innovations have turned out to be less tangible than expected. The NDD policy has also revealed a number of unexpected actions on people’s side. Instead of increased usage of public transportation, Mexico City dwellers found a way around it by purchasing more vehicles in order to have a reserve automobile to be used on No Driving Days. Actually, this nullified the immediate positive tendencies that showed during initial stages of the NDD policy. Other attempts to limit air pollution include increased vehicle ownership taxation and boosting the price of fuels. The advocates of these measures believed that this would discourage people from using cars and thus reduce the impact on the environment. All these measures have proven less effective than expected, since most Mexico residents simply cannot afford new vehicles, to which the new regulations actually spread, and prefer to use old vehicles without having to purchase new equipment. Now, having discussed a few measures that have been taken over the last several years in an attempt to solve the ecological problem, we can see that they are not always applicable or effective. As there is just one major problem that all these issues stem from – the overpopulation – all efforts to change things for the better must be concentrated on solving overpopulation problem. Although mandatory measures, such as inspections, bans, taxation and can have a temporary effect, there is no way to achieve significant improvement in air and water quality but by using wise economical and political instruments. Once again, in order to encourage city dwellers to move to rural areas, healthy economic environment must be created in agricultural regions. This is only feasible through establishing price standards acceptable for country dwellers and creating an ample ground for agricultural business. In other words, in order to stop the growth of city population, we have to make the village no less livable than the city. Unfortunately, very little is being done to improve life in the country, since it would take a decision by the Mexican government to unilaterally withdraw from the WTO, which can entail a conflict with the USA, the founder of the WTO. Today, the Mexican government still prefers to use doubtful methods of forcing the poor to leave the city – by raiding their encampments, as it did in the late 1990s. 1. Phil Hearse. â€Å"MEXICO CITY – Environmental Crisis, Socialist Solutions. Environment and Urbanization, Vil. 11, No 1, 53-78 (1999) 2. Ramiro Tovar Landa, 1995. â€Å"Mobile Source Pollution in Mexico City and Market-Based Alternatives† Published by the Cato Institute. Editorial and business offices are located at 1000 Massachusetts Avenue, N. W. , Washington, D. C. , 20001

Buisness Of the Railroad essays

Buisness Of the Railroad essays One of the first big business of 1850s started with the development of the railroad. Before the civil war was the trunk line railroads, witch controlled 500 miles of track each, and had hundreds of employees. The late 1860s and early 1870s the New York central and many other railroads ran through the west. A major accomplishment was set fourth when entrepreneurs completed the first Transcontinental line, and construction was a hard and exspecive task. ( Even the largest textile mills employed fewer than a thousand people , and a handful were capitalized at more than 1 million dollars.) (pg 53) Railroads were growing rapidly across the country all over the United States. In the 1880s there was an average of 8,000 miles of track being layed that the Americans had built, and by the time of 1890the entire nation had already had 166,000 miles of track. And with big railroad improvement and passage ways came growing cities and even more businesses that people could benefit off of. Then in 1916 constuction of more than254,000 miles had been completed. So in result it was a complete system by 1916. (even by the end of the 1880s, an intergrated, nationwide railroad network was available to farmers, manufacturers, merchants, and passangers.)(pg53). Because railroads grew so fast problems came up faster than expected such as they were so big there was not enough employees to go around. This served as a big problem. And as people found out in the railroad business problems that would come up were much more complicated than say a factory on the north shore having problems. When making decisions about a problem or any other complications that may come up wile running a railroad , deciding and making rash decisions effect lives of the passangers and also affect the employees on the trains, so decisions have to be made fast and precise. The most common problems of the Railroad is problems of financing expansion an ...

The Evolution Debate essays

The Evolution Debate essays Charles Darwin first used the term natural selection in his book The Origin of Species, which presented his distinctive views on evolution. Though the concept of evolution as such did not originate with Darwin, he was the first and most unswerving defender of the mechanism of natural selection, which derives from the concepts of survival of the fittest and differential reproduction. Hence the concept of natural selection that underlies much of contemporary evolutionary study and research. The concept has its ancestry in the idea of the survival of the fittest, which states that those organisms that are best modified to their environment are those that are most likely to survive. In other words, the organisms most capable of existing in a given environment will tend to outlive those that are less skilled in surviving in the same environment. The next concept, called differential reproduction, is an effect to survival of the fittest. Differential reproduction is the idea that those organisms best adapted to a given environment will be most likely to survive to reproductive age and have offspring of their own. Organisms that are victorious in their environments will be more likely to be successful in reproduction, and therefore the better-adapted organisms will reproduce at a greater rate than the less well-adapted organisms. Differential reproduction, or difference in the rates of reproduction of differently-adapted organisms, will favor the better-adapted organisms at the expense of the worse-adapted ones. Natural selection is the process by which the organisms with the best or most favorable genetic adaptations out-compete other organisms in a population, tending to displace the less-adapted organisms. This process derives concepts of survival of the fittest and differential reproduction. Natural selection takes place over the course of many generations and can change the basic at ...

Terrorism in the United States Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Terrorism in the United States - Research Paper Example To accomplish this, U.S. entered into agreements which included military protection with ultra-conservative monarchies in exchange of oil reserves. Consequently, leadership in this region has perennially remained undemocratic alienating the masses further from the government. This has further triggered Islamic resistance against the American domination and undemocratic rule (Jackson, 2006). Secondly, Washington’s decision to support Israel to the detriment of Palestine contributed immensely to the creation of Arab and Islam antipathy towards U.S. This factor became much evident in 1967 when Israel invaded and occupied large swaths of Palestinian territory. Up to date, Israel and Palestinians are at war over this contentious territory. The third reason that probably contributed to 9/11 was involvement of U.S. army in the Afghanistan civil war that erupted in 1978. Unpopularity of United States within the Arabic regimes worsened following the sanctions that U.S. government impos ed against the people of Iraq in 1991. This decision preceded the gulf War and more than 1.5 Iraqis died following dozen years of U.S. sanctions. Lastly, the move by U.S. to forcefully employ its Military in Afghanistan following the 9/11 attacks triggered radical sentiments in most of the Arabic states. Understanding the root causes of terrorist attacks targeting United States and to a larger extent the entire globe offers the best framework to addressing the challenges. Principally, the radical Islamic views against U.S. is a product of the United States’ foreign policies and foreign interests. In an effort to maintain its global dominance, U.S. has been forced to directly or indirectly intervene in the governance... Terrorism has been a growing concern for both the government and the citizens of United States in the last two decades. Prior to the terrorist attack of September 11, 2001, the government appeared to have successfully kept the international terrorist organizations away from the American soil. However, this did not in any way imply that the citizens of United States were safe from terror attacks. Terrorism, according to U.S. State Department, is defined as premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against non-combatant targets by particular groups or individuals, usually with an aim of commanding influence or expressing grievances. Essentially, terrorism is classified into either international or domestic terrorism. International terrorism, which forms the focus of this research work, is that which involves citizens or territory of more than one country. On the other hand, domestic terrorism are normally carried out by citizens of a particular county within the borders of the same country (White, 2011). In conclusion, terrorism stands out as one of the greatest threat to U.S. homeland security. The situation is further complicated by the recent proliferation of nuclear weapons and the fears of these organization accessing these weapons. Therefore, it is imperative for the government to employ both diplomatic and tactical moves in countering the activities of terrorist organizations. Washington has the obligation to recognize the need to engage Arabic nations in talks aimed at resolving historical conflicts.

Technologicial Entrepreneurship & Innovation Essay

Technologicial Entrepreneurship & Innovation - Essay Example Lack of communication and coordination, thus becomes an impediment on the invention. Individuals working alone do not have to manage teams and thus can fully concentrate on the work at hand. Jewkes also points out that research organizations hire people who may not be totally research driven. The passion to achieve something new is absent from many people working within an organization. For the individual worker, the passion is there since he utilizes his own resources and his efforts largely go unpaid. Despite this, the individual worker pursues his aim since he is driven by the passion of invention. However, research organizations set the pace for the invention which would otherwise be dependent on the inventor’s spark of genius which could take any length of time if the inventor is left to his own devices. While Jewkes fights against the concept of individuals working in teams, he also provides certain pros of the position. He believes that teams should be encouraged so as to provide support to the individual worker. According to Jewkes, the purpose of teams should be to help the actual inventor to gain support from the men who are under his command. Also Jewkes believes that teamwork has become imperative in this era of specialization. This is because as science and technology have advanced to new levels, it is difficult for the individual to know everything. This then demands the need for team work where members fill in the information required to work on complex tasks. b. Innovation arising among individuals or small enterprises vs. large, highly structured enterprises (about 500 words) Innovation arising among individuals is the preferred form of innovation in the opinion of Jewkes. To support this claim, Jewkes offers various examples as well as...Apple iPod was introduced in 2000 as a reaction to music players that were already in the market but none was as sleek as the Apple iPod. The ten stereotypes developed by Scott Burken do not absolutely hold true for this innovation. As times, the iPod defies the stereotypes and takes in own path. One stereotypes that iPod defies from the ten stereotypes is the reaction of the public towards the product. Previously consumers were using large music players that were bulky and not as convenient as the iPod, thus when presented with the iPod; they fell in love with it. Apple Inc. already had a reputation of delivery top quality innovative products and this reputation went along with iPod. Thus iPod was an instant success among the public since they were given a more beautiful and bigger machines for playing music than they previously had. Burken, on the other hand, asserts that innovations when introduced in the market do not receive the reaction that they do after some time. They fail to generate interest among the customers; however, this was not the case with Apple’s iPod. Another stereotype that Apple iPod defies is that it was developed under the guidance of Steve Jobs. Steve Jobs, before being an innovator, is a manager.

Interest Groups and Politics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Interest Groups and Politics - Essay Example The organization acts as an advocate to suppliers on regulatory and legislative issues (MEMA (a)). It identifies issues affecting the industry and proposes to the relevant authorities on how changes should be made on the policy or the matter, to avoid harmful effects to the industry. Examples of its advocacy initiatives are three letters addressed to relevant authorities touching on legislative issues affecting the industry. One letter was addressed to an acting director and general counsel of the office of government ethics. There was a proposed amendment to limit gifts from registered lobbyists and lobbying organizations. MEMA was not for the idea. The main issue here was that, the proposal would prohibit government employees from using the WAG exception to attend lobbying organizations’ variety of events and programs. MEMA, therefore, wrote a letter to address this issue on behalf of the companies it represented. It explained the effect of such an amendment and the companie s’ contribution to the economy (MEMA (d)). Another letter was addressed to the Honorable Carl Levin, a US Senator by then (2008), touching on the issue of Patent Reform Act (S.1145). The organization was concerned that this reform would weaken its patent system. It therefore addressed a letter to the Senator, before the issue was taken up in the Senate (MEMA (b)). Recently, President Obama uncovered a new plan for a â€Å"clean and secure energy future† (Walsh). MEMA has already analyzed the proposal and the opportunities it provides its members. It would, therefore, like its suppliers to be included in the proposal. The proposal is meant to set up an Energy Security Trust Fund, aimed at collecting $2 billion for a period of over 10 years. This is to be used in research into initiatives such as bio-fuels, domestically produced natural gas, electric vehicles, and fuel cells. Since 30% of the $18 billion research and development investment in automotive comes from the su pply base, MEMA is concerned that they need to be included in the proposal. The organization therefore, wrote a letter to the white house advocating for the inclusion of suppliers in the proposal (Walsh). Interest groups are there to provide valuable information to policy makers. According to Crain and Santos, information is always provided in the form of testimonies to committees. Information is provided under oath and so the interest groups ensure they provide truthful information. This supports one of the actions of MEMA (Crain & Santos). MEMA has provided a testimony before â€Å"the U.S. House Representatives Financial Services Oversight and Investigation Subcommittee† (MEMA (c)). The groups provide such information to the relevant committees free of charge. This may bring in the question of where they get their funds, because, obtaining such kind of information to present to a committee as a testimony is costly, both in terms of money and time. They also do not make mon ey. Interest groups are funded by both government and private institutions. This affects the organizations ability to lobby for something that is of their interest. Most of these organizations were supported by their founding organizations or groups for various reasons. The main reason is advocacy. This could be the case with MEMA. Albiston and Nielsen, however, indicate that the structure of funding has shifted from foundational support to government grants. Most of the

Virtue ethics Essay Example for Free

Virtue ethics Essay 1. 0 Introduction Different cultures have different way of thinking. With the coming of Christianity, a new set of ideas emerged. The Christians, like the Jews, viewed God as a lawgiver, and so laws will be the key to righteous living. For the Greeks, the life of virtue was in related to the life of reason. But Saint Augustine, the influential fourth-century Christian thinker, distrusted reason and believed that moral goodness depends on subordinating oneself to the will of God. Thus, modern moral philosophers has different subject from ancients by asking What is the right thing to do? Instead of asking What traits of character make someone a good person? This led them in a different direction. Following are theories develop by them: Ethical Egoism: Each person ought to do whatever will best promote his or her own interests. The social Contract Theory: The right thing to do is to follow the rules that rational, self-interested people would agree to follow for their mutual benefit. Utilitarianism: One ought to do whatever will lead to the most happiness. Kant’s theory: Our duty is to follow rules that we could accept as universal laws – that is, rules we would be willing for everyone to follow in all circumstances. (Ruggeiro. V. R. ,2011) 2. 0 What Is a Virtue? The first systematic description of virtue ethics was written down by Aristotle in his famous work Nichomachean Ethics. Aristotle said that a virtue is a trait of character manifested in habitual action. The word â€Å"habitual† here is important. The virtue of honesty, for example, is not possessed by someone who tells the truth only occasionally or only when it benefits her. The honest person is truthful as a matter of course; her actions â€Å"spring from a firm and unchangeable character. † (Ruggeiro. V. R.,2011) When people acquire good habits of character, they are better able to regulate their emotions and their reason. This, in turn, we will reach morally correct decisions during making difficult choices. To apply virtue ethics to a given case first should discuss which character traits (virtues, vices, intermediate states) are relevant and reflect on the kind of actions, attitudes, and feelings go along with them. It is not enough to say This action expresses virtue, you must say which virtue (generosity, appropriate compassion) and the reason. (Dr.Garrett, 2005) 2. 1 What are the Virtues? Virtues are the essence of our character. Almost every character should be fostered in human beings. The more virtues that we can practice on our life, the more our lives open up to new possibilities and to greater joy and fulfillment. Virtues List Fairness| Patience| Prudence| Friendliness| Loyalty| Honesty| Conscientiousness| Helpfulness| Self-discipline| Compassion| Courage| Self- reliance| Civility| Cooperativeness| Tolerance| (World language process, n, d) There are many more beside from the list above. 3. 0 Topic sentence In the virtues list above, I have chosen helpfulness as the greatest ethical ideal that I learned from this subject. According to (Shelly, 2009) helpfulness is teachable by our parent and family members since we are young. For example, we can teach a dog to become seeing-eye dog which can help the blind man in his daily life. The reason that I choose this is because I had experience the important of helpfulness in the hour of need. One day, I went to Giant supermarket to buy a bottle of soft drink that is RM3. 00, when I went to cashier and made payment, I realize that I had no enough money in my purse. I only have RM1 in my purse, and there long queue behind me. I asked the cashier that whether I can make payment by debit card or not. She tried few times but the card machine is not functioning. I feel anxiety and ashamed because there is many people waiting behind me. Suddenly, a Malay girl came beside me and helps to pay another RM2 to the cashier. I feel grateful the Malay girl had helps me in the hour of need although we don’t know each other and when I want to return the money to her but she rejected. In the end, I had return back the money to her and her friend said she was always like that. The helpfulness of the Malay girl is worth to be learned by us. Helping each other is just a very common thing in our life and it is benefit the giver as well as the receiver. But sometimes, there are some people helping others in order to get reward from those who need help. To avoid this, we should help people spontaneously just like the Malay girl. Ethics is asp rational rather than obligations for inducing human nature to be an ideal. According to mental health America (2012), there is a research show that those who often helps other people will live in less depression, greater calm, fewer pains and better health life. In Malaysia, we have three major ethic groups and others minor ethnic groups living together. In order to achieve peaceful coexistence, we should help each other when the hour of need rather than just care for our own. If we can continued foster the virtue of helpfulness, our country will be harmonious. But, unfortunately, our society has gradually become cold and detached. There is a case happened in Air Itam, Penang. A 60-year-old woman, Tan Kin Chuan, was robbed and knocked down by two snatch thieves on a motorcycle in and sadly, no one went to her aid. The disturbing scene was caught by CCTV cameras installed near the motorcycle parking area on the ground floor of the Padang Tembak flats. Based on the footages, the woman, who worked at a kopitiam lay unconscious as several people walked pass before an old man walking with an aid of a cane, finally called an ambulance. She was later taken to the Penang Hospital but succumbed to her injuries eight hours later, due to head injuries. (ntv7 News Portal, 2012) Why that passer-by doesn’t want to help the old woman? If the first passer-by give aid to the old woman and send her on time to the hospital, she might not die at the end? Nowadays, Malaysia public order is getting more and more worse; we can see there is many cases such as frauds, pretending to ask for directions, disguise the identity of the robbery, kidnaps reported in newspaper. In such circumstances, people had to be vigilant, no longer easily trust each others, or even turn a blind eye to help in the immediate event, so as not to fall into the trap of getting himself into trouble. At the end, people’s compassion and mercy has been reducing and replace with the heart of stone and indifferent attitude. There is many ways for us in helping others and it’s doesn’t means that we have to make grand gestures or huge time commitments. It can mean holding the elevator for someone is coming in, helps your co-worker to gets something is beyond their reach, letting a car in front of you on the road and many others. Besides that, we also can involve our self as a volunteer in some organization which having social responsibility project. We can based on our interest to find a right match, for example, if you are interest in reading, you may consider volunteering at a school or tutoring program; if you love animal, you can volunteering in Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. 4. 0 Conclusion In conclusion, we should not be hesitate and stingy to give a helping hand for the needy. Although it’s may be only a single small act of kindness but when bound together it can make a big changes. It is because so many people step forward and offer that helping hand that we are able to help those who are in more unfortunate situations. Reference Ruggeiro. V. R. (2011) Thinking Critically about Ethnical issues (8th edition). Boston. Mc Gard- Hill Dr. Garrett, (2005) Virtue Ethics [Online]. Retrieved from: http://www. wku. edu/~jan. garrett/ethics/virtthry. htm [Accessed on 5 Nov 2012] World language process (n,d) List of Virtues [Online]. Retrieved from: http://www. worldlanguageprocess. org/comic%20books/virtues%20list. htm [Accessed on 10 Nov 2012] Shelly. R (2009) Helpfulness [Online]. Retrieved from: http://www. heartlight. org/articles/200906/20090616_helpfulness. html [Accessed on 6 Nov 2012] Mental Health America (2012) Helps Other [Online]. Retrieved from: http://www. liveyourlifewell. org/go/live-your-life-well/others [Accessed on 10 Nov 2012] Ntv7 News Portal, (2012) No immediate assistance: Elderly woman knocked down by snatch thief, ignored by all but an old man [Online]. Retrieved from: http://origin-www. ntv7. com. my/7edition/local-en/NO_IMMEDIATE_ASSISTANCE_ELDERLY_WOMAN_KNOCKED_DOWN_BY_SNATCH_THIEF_IGNORED_BY_ALL_BUT_AN_OLD_MAN. html[Accessed on 16 Nov 2012].

Howard Becker Criminology | A Theory Analysis

Howard Becker Criminology | A Theory Analysis With close reference to a selection from your research/reading (minimum 3 references by or about your criminologist), critically assess the contribution made by your author to criminological knowledge. You should focus closely on how he /she developed critiqued or applied theory. INTRODUCTION Howard Becker is hailed as the founder of modern labeling theory. He also developed the term moral entrepreneur to describe persons in power who campaign to have certain deviant behavior outlawed (Becker, 1963). He claims that many laws are established for such purposes, and that behavior that is defined as criminal is dynamic and changes throughout time. Therefore, the actual criminal behavior is irrelevant to the theory. What really matters is which outlaws are arrested and processed by the criminal justice system (Becker, 1963). As a result of the belief that personal and societal factors do not contribute to motivations for criminal behavior there has been little study of the criminal him/herself and the aforesaid factors. As one might expect, this aspect of Labeling Theory is still being debated. There is one exception to this belief, however most labeling theorists claim that the system is biased toward the lower class, which constitutes the overwhelming majority of arrests and convictions within the American criminal justice system (Wellford, 1975). This Labeling Theory, found in Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance (1963), is perhaps his most important and influential contribution to sociology. Influenced by Cooleys looking-glass self, Meads theories on the internalization of the self, and Lemerts social constructionism, Becker explains that deviance is based on the reactions and responses of others to an individuals acts. The label of deviant is applied to an individual when others observe their behavior and react to it by labeling that person as deviant. No particular act is inherently deviant until a group with socially powerful statuses or positions label it as such (Becker, 1963). This theoretical approach to deviance has influenced criminology, gender, sexuality and identity research. This work became the manifesto of the labeling theory movement among sociologists. In his opening, Becker writes: social groups create deviance by making rules whose infraction creates deviance, and by applying those roles to particular people and labeling them as outsiders. From this point of view, deviance is not a quality of the act the person commits, but rather a consequence of the application by other of rules and sanctions to an offender. The deviant is one to whom that label has been successfully applied; deviant behavior is behavior that people so label.[8] While society uses the stigmatic label to justify its condemnation, the deviant actor uses it to justify his actions. He wrote: To put a complex argument in a few words: instead of the deviant motives leading to the deviant behavior, it is the other way around, the deviant behavior in time produces the deviant motivation.[9] INFLUENCES Beckers theory evolved during a period of social and political power struggle that was amplified within the world of the college campus (Pfohl, 1994). Liberal political movements were embraced by many of the college students and faculty in America (Pfohl 1994). Howard Becker harnessed this liberal influence and adjusted Lemerts labeling theory and its symbolic interaction theoretical background. The labeling theory outlined in Outsiders is recognized as the prevailing social reaction approach by Lemert as well as most other sociologists (www.sonoma.edu). Beckers approach has its roots in the symbolic interaction foundation of Cooley and Mead, and the labeling influences of Tannenbaum and Lemert. Charles Cooleys Human Nature and the Social Order (1902) examines the personal perception of oneself through studies of children and their imaginary friends. Cooley develops the theoretical concept of the looking glass self, a type of imaginary sociability (Cooley 1902). People imagine the view of themselves through the eyes of others in their social circles and form judgements of themselves based on these imaginary observations (Cooley 1902). The main idea of the looking glass self is that people define themselves according to societys perception of them (www.d.umn.edu). Cooleys ideas, coupled with the works of Mead, are very important to labeling theory and its approach to a persons acceptance of labels as attached by society. George Meads theory is less concerned with the micro-level focus on the deviant and more concerned with the macro-level process of separating the conventional and the condemned (Pfohl 1994). In Mind, Self, and Society (1934), Mead describes the perception of self as formed within the context of social process (Wright, 1984). The self is the product of the minds perception of social symbols and interactions (www.d.umn.edu ). The self exists in objective reality and is then internalized into the conscious (Wright 1984). The idea of shifting the focus away from the individual deviant and looking at how social structure affects the separation of those persons considered unconventional has a great influence on how Becker approaches labeling theory. Social Pathology (1951) outlines Edwin Lemerts approach to what many consider the original version of labeling theory. Lemert, unhappy with theories that take the concept of deviance for granted, focuses on the social construction of deviance (Lemert 1951). Lemert (1951) describes deviance as the product societys reaction to an act and the affixing of a deviant label on the actor. Social Pathology details the concepts of primary and secondary deviance. According to Lemert (1951), primary deviance is the initial incidence of an act causing an authority figure to label the actor deviant. This initial labeling of a deviant act will remain primary as long as the actor can rationalize or deal with the process as a function of a socially acceptable role (Lemert, 1951). If the labeled deviant reacts to this process by accepting the deviant label, and further entrenches his/herself in deviant behavior, this is referred to as secondary deviance (Lemert, 1951). Lemert considers the causes of p rimary deviance as fluid, and only important to researchers concerned with specific social problems at a certain time. In the years following Social Pathology, Lemert argues for the decriminalization of victimless crimes, advocates pre-trial diversion programs, and has backed away labeling determinism (Wright, 1984). BECKERS LABELLING THEORY Howard Beckers approach to the labeling of deviance, as described in Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance (1963), views deviance as the creation of social groups and not the quality of some act or behavior. Becker (1963) criticizes other theories of deviance for accepting the existence of deviance and by doing so, accept the values of the majority within the social group. According to Becker (1963), studying the act of the individual is unimportant because deviance is simply rule breaking behavior that is labeled deviant by persons in positions of power. The rule breaking behavior is constant, the labeling of the behavior varies (Becker 1963). Becker (1963) describes rules as the reflection of certain social norms held by the majority of a society, whether formal or informal. Enforced rules, the focus of Beckers (1963) approach, are applied differentially and usually facilitate certain favorable consequences for those who apply the label. In short, members of the rule-maki ng society may label rule breaking behavior deviant depending on the degree of reaction over time (Becker, 1963). Becker (1963) views those people that are likely to engage in rule breaking behavior as essentially different than members of the rule-making or rule-abiding society. Those persons who are prone to rule-breaking behavior see themselves as morally at odds with those members of the rule-abiding society (Becker 1963). Becker (1963) uses the term outsider to describe a labeled rule-breaker or deviant that accepts the label attached to them and view themselves as different from mainstream society. Deviants may consider themselves more outside than others similarly labeled (Becker 1963). Deviant outsiders might view those rule making or abiding members of society as being the outsiders of their social group (Becker, 1963). The final step in the creation of a career delinquent involves the movement of a rule breaker into a deviant subculture (Becker, 1963). The affiliation of the labeled deviant with an organized provides the person with moral support and a self-justifying rationale (Becker 1963). Becker (1963) describes how those involved in an organized crime may learn new forms of deviance through differential association. Becker (1963) also focuses on those in positions of power and authority that make and enforce the rules. Rules are created by a moral entrepreneur, a person that takes the initiative to crusade for a rule that would right a society evil (Becker 1963). The moral entrepreneurs motive may be to elevate the social status of those members of society below him/her (Becker 1963). The success of the crusade may lead to the entrepreneur to become a professional rule creator (Becker 1963). Becker (1963) states that the success of each moral crusade brings along with it a new group of outsiders, and a new responsibility of an enforcement agency. According to Becker (1963), the enforcement of societys rules is an enterprising act. The enforcement of a rule occurs when those that want a rule enforced, usually to some sort of gain to their personal interests, bring the rule infraction to the attention of the public (Becker 1963). The rule infraction, brought to the attention of those in positions of authority, is dealt with punitively by the entrepreneur (Becker, 1963). The enforcement of the rule may involve the mediation of conflicts between many different interest groups by those in positions of power (Becker, 1963). The enforcers themselves may have a moral crusade to stop crime, but most engage in the process strictly as a part of their occupation (Becker 1963). Rule enforcers use the process of formal enforcement to satisfy two major interests, the justification of their occupation and the winning of respect from the people he/she patrols (Becker, 1963). The enforcer is armed with a great deal of discretion and may use hi s/her power to label an innocent person in order to gain respect (Becker, 1963). The misuse of labeling powers by enforcers may create a deviant out of a person who otherwise would not be prone to rule breaking behavior (Becker, 1963). Beckers work pays particular attention to the way society reacts to people with criminal labels. He proposes that this label becomes a persons master status, meaning that this is a constant label, affecting and over-riding how others will view them. The status people use to identify and classify a person will always be that of a criminal. Any other statuses a person occupies are no longer heeded. A person could be a parent, employee, spouse, etc., but the first and major status that will come to mind to other people and themselves is that of the criminal (Becker, 1963). Beckers Outsiders (1963) uses two cases to illustrate his approach to labeling theory. Becker (1963) analyzes the history of marijuana laws in the United States and how individuals progress into the recreational use of the drug. Becker (1963) chooses to analyze marijuana because the progression of use can be observed. The first time user of marijuana finds the experience as somewhat unpleasant, but as the user imitates peers he/she learns to perceive the effects of marijuana as enjoyable (Becker 1963). Becker (1963) identifies three stages of marijuana use: the beginner, the occasional user, and the regular user. The three self-explanatory categories of marijuana users can be manipulated through the use of social controls (Becker, 1963). Control of the marijuana supply has both positive and negative effects (Becker, 1963). A diminished supply of marijuana may lead to a decreased use of the drug among some people, but it may also drive a user to associate with an organized group of deviants to obtain marijuana (Becker 1963). Becker (1963) believes that while control of marijuana supply is an important social control, it does not deter use. The best way to deter a user is to control his/her individual moral view of marijuana use. A marihuana user is labelled to be deviant as it contravenes the rules and norms of the society. Becker researched on marihuana users and used it in supporting his labelling theory . Becker notes that this deviant behaviour is based on the given kind of behaviour as an end product of a sequence of social experiences during which the person acquires a comprehension of the meaning of the behaviour, the perceptions and judgements of objects and situations, all of which makes the activity possible and desirable. An individual will only be able to use marihuana for pleasure if he goes through a process of learning to conceive of it as an object where he is able to recognise the effects and connect them with drug use; to inhale in a way that produce real upshot; and learning to enjoy the sensation he comprehends. Once the ability to achieve enjoyment is acquired, he will continue to use it. (continuing usage of the marihuana is the secondary deviant) Considerations of morality and appropri ateness, occasioned by the rejoinder of society, may hamper and impede use, but use persists to be a possibility in terms of the notion of the drug. The act will only be impossible when the ability to achieve the enjoyment is vanished, through a revolutionize of users conception of the drug occasioned by certain kind of experience with it. Becker (1963) uses a participant observation study of the lives of Chicago dance musicians to illustrate the social life of a deviant subculture. Although dance musicians as a group are law-abiding, their unconventional lifestyles lead them to feel as outsiders (Becker 1963). Becker (1963) describes how being a dance musician involves a change in attitudes and opinions in order to conform to the subculture. The culture of the dance musician is rich in its own language and gestures (Becker, 1963). Many of the dance musicians live a conventional family life during the day and change into their role as musician at night (Becker, 1963). Another aspect of labelling theory in which Becker outlines as problematic, is the concept of morality. He questions a situation where the researchers sympathies should lie. He contemplates on whether one should side with the underdog or simply judge criminal behaviour as inherently wrong? He stresses the sociological difficulty of this decision. He claims that the researcher, whether taking either side, will be accused of taking a one-sided and distorted view, but how is it possible to see the situation from both sides simultaneously (Becker, 1963)? Despite many contributions, the evaluation of labelling theorists is normally considered with an excessive amount of criticism. Becker concludes Outsiders (1963) by emphasizing the need for empirical research of his approach to labeling theory. Social scientists produced a vast amount of literature in response to Beckers request. Much of the research involving labeling theory directly reflects Beckers approach, while others use Becker (1963) as a foundation for theory development. APPLICATION Gideon Fishman tests Beckers labeling theory by studying a sample of midwestern juvenile delinquents (Friday and Stewart, 1977). Fishmans research design measures negative self-perception and whether this self-perception affects future delinquency (Friday and Stewart, 1977). The results of Fishmans study show that secondary deviance is not universal and individuals react to deviant labels in different ways (Friday and Stewart, 1977). A popular application of Beckers labeling theory (1963) is in the area of mental health. Thomas Scheff embraces Beckers approach to labeling and describes how people are labeled mentally ill in order to explain certain rule-breaking behavior that society cant categorize (Holstein, 1993; www.sscf.ucsb.edu). Scheff is not concerned with occasional acts of deviance, rather it is the residual or episodic deviance that often falls under the label of mental illness (Wright, 1984; Pfohl, 1994). People labeled as mentally ill adopt the behaviors of the stereotypical mental patient as portrayed through the mass media (Wright 1984). Scheff argues that those who express the stereotypical behavior of the mentally ill are rewarded by enterprising psychology professionals (Wright, 1984; Pfohl, 1994). According to Scheff, everybody expresses the popular symptoms of mental illness at some point in their life and labels are attached to those without power (Wright 1984). Scheff provides empirical evid ence in the form of several studies of the process of mental hospital commitment (Holstein, 1993; Pfohl, 1994; Wright, 1983; www.sscf.ucsb.edu). Many social scientists challenge Scheffs arguments on theoretical and empirical grounds. James A. Holstein (1993) attacks Scheffs approach for focusing on the deviant and not the moral entrepreneurs that attach the labels. Florence Ridlon (1988) criticizes Scheffs work for being deterministic and argues for a less causal model to explain mental afflictions such as alcoholism. Walter Gove (1980), an adamant critic of Scheff, believes that Scheff should not dismiss the influence of psychopathological variables on mental illness. Gove (1980) also criticizes Scheffs empirical methodology and operations. Edwin Schur modifies Beckers labeling theory in Labeling Deviant Behavior (1971) by shifting some of the focus to the individual deviant. Schur (1971) also theorizes that as persons labeled deviant gain power and organize, they progress in social definition from an uprising, social movement, and civil war to the formation of a mainstream political party. Schur argues in Labeling Women Deviant (1983) that women in America are automatically labeled deviant by the male-dominated society. Women accept the deviant label as their master status and limit their life chances (Schur, 1983). CRITICISMS Beckers theory of labeling, while maintaining a great deal of popularity today, does encounter several criticisms (Pfohl 1994; www.mpcc.cc.ne.us ; Ridlon 1988). Many sociologists view labeling theory as untestable and, by definition, not a true theory (Ridlon 1988). Becker (1963) acknowledges that his labeling theory is a theoretical approach, not a true theory, and that sociologists should attempt to establish empirical tests for his approach. Another major criticism of labeling theory is its failure to explain primary deviance (www.mpcc.cc.ne.us). Both Lemert (1951) and Becker (1963) believe that primary deviance is influenced by many different and changing variables and the research of primary deviance causes is futile. Pfohl (1994) details the criticism of many sociologists that labeling theory is causal or deterministic. Becker (1963) qualifies his approach to social reaction theory by stating that some groups of rule-breakers may be able to choose alternative courses of action. Beckers immensely popular views were also subjected to a barrage of criticism, most of it blaming him for neglecting the influence of other biological, genetic effects and personal responsibility. In a later 1973 edition of his work, he answered his critics. He wrote that while sociologists, while dedicated to studying society, are often careful not to look too closely. Instead, he wrote: I prefer to think of what we study as collective action. People act, as Mead and Blumer have made clearest, together. They do what they do with an eye on what others have done, are doing now, and may do in the future. One tries to fit his own line of action into the actions of others, just as each of them likewise adjusts his own developing actions to what he sees and expects others to do.[10] Francis Cullen reported in 1984 that Becker was probably too generous with his critics. After 20 years, his views, far from being supplanted, have been corrected and absorbed into an expanded structuring perspective.[11] From a logical standpoint there are flaws within the main points of labeling theory. Initially the theory states that no acts are inherently criminal (Wellford, 1975). Meaning that acts are only criminal when society has deemed them as such. The implications of this being that criminal law is dynamic and ever-changing, differing from society to society. But if this is true then why are certain acts illegal within the majority of the civilized world? Murder, rape, arson, armed robbery. All these are considered crimes in any society or country one could care to name. Also the theory claims that for a criminal to be successfully labeled an audience must be present to provide a reaction to the crimes committed. Does this mean that if a murder is committed where the killer has successfully avoided anyones suspicion that the act is then not criminal and the killer will not think of him/herself as such? Its probable that the murderers socialization and/or value system could initialize self-labeling, but the theory clearly states the labeling must come from a 3rd party (Hagan, 1973). For the sake of argument, if self labeling is possible and a person has obtained a self-initialized criminal master status/label, how do they react to it? Do they become criminals or try to rationalize as stated by Foster, Dinitz, and Reckless (Foster Dinitz Reckless, 1972)? Beckers labelling theory has also drawn to a considerable criticism. One of such is that his labelling theory failed to answer the etiological question about primary deviance, for example: What causes deviance? Jack Gibbs pointed out that the theory failed to provide ample answers to three etiological questions: Why does the prevalence of a particular act vary from one population to the next? Why do some persons commit the act while others do not? Why is the act in question considered deviant and criminal in some societies but not in others? This clearly shows that labelling theory is mere humanistic-antideterministic or voluntaristic hypothesis only . Then again, recent activists of the theory beginning to shift the labelling theory into a more scientific, deterministic one, and this approach is apparent in empirical studies of the secondary deviance. Instead of describing the process of interaction between labellers and the labelled that leads to secondary deviance, these revisioni sts defined, operationalised or measure labelling as a causal variable of secondary deviation. CONCLUSION Social scientists disagree on the future of labeling theory. Pfohl (1994) recognizes labeling theory as very influential in todays studies of deviance. Some social scientists view labeling theory as declining in importance due to lack of empirical support and a conservative political climate (www.mpcc.cc.ne.us ). Becker (1963) believes the future of labeling theory lies in the widespread empirical study of deviance and kinds of deviance. Beckers analysis gives us a dynamic account of how a person can be funneled into a deviant career by labeling processes. This is also a compellingly humanistic theory of deviance. We can identify and sympathize with the deviant who has been the victim of labeling processes, even to the extent of realizing that it could happen to any of us. In this and many other respects, Beckers micro-relativistic approach to deviance theory contrasts markedly with normative theories that emphasize in a detached, objective way the fundamental differences between deviants and nondeviants. If Becker makes us understand the human implications of reactions to deviance, then he has accomplished one of his major theoretical goals. In attempting to evaluate the contribution of the labelling theorists to the study of the sociology of deviance, it can be said that it depends on how the theory is viewed. If the theory is considered as a theory, with all the achievements and obligations that go with the title, then its flaws are many. Yet if, as Backer suggests, we attempt to consider the theory as it were intended, that is, as a mere way of looking at deviance, then the contribution can be said to be weighty, as it opened up a whole new study of the individual after he has committed an act of deviance. At this point it must be mentioned that labelling theorists do not merely consider the after-effects of the deviant act, as it is sometimes suggested. Becker, for example, considers the individual and how he begins to smoke marijuana. As Schur sums up, labelling theory is not a revolutionary new approach to the analysis of social problems but rather a recording or emphasis of such analysis, a reordering that may hel p us to view deviance and control in a realistic, comprehensive, and sociologically meaningful light. As such, one can conclude that labelling theory continues in its usefulness, as long as deviant behaviour continues to exist.